The teaching conditions likely to foster learning

The following teaching conditions help readers improve their knowledge of reading.

The ground rules for reading aloud

Establish the ground rules for reading aloud with readers. It is essential that they be reassured that the goal or purpose of reading aloud is not word-perfect, errorless reading, but instead, discovering what the writer wanted to tell them. They should be aware that they can do whatever they want to achieve this goal; they can -

1. pause at any point and consolidate what is known about the print, perhaps by asking questions such as "What do I know now? What could this mean?" etc.
2. experiment while reading, guess at what the print might be about.
3. re-read parts that didn't make sense, self-correct, guess unfamiliar words and check guesses against the text.
4. read at their own pace and to change pace if they want to.
5. re-read a section several times to achieve fluency, to pick up the thread of the reading.
6. stop at any point and say "That didn't sound right/make sense", etc.
7. point at words while reading, run finger along the text as they read, use fingers to segment words.

They should also be aware that the purpose of reading is to discover the writer's message, that they can do whatever they want to achieve this. Many children who have had a history of reading difficulties will need to learn to see reading aloud as a technique that can help them to read. Their earlier experiences of reading aloud may well have provoked anxiety and fear.

Reading underachievers need to experience these ground rules being used practically. They need to hear teachers praise them for re-reading, for experimenting or for changing pace, and to see that their attempts at "playing by these rules" are valued. Praise the reader for re-reading, guessing, taking risks, changing pace and help the reader to see that attempts at "playing by these rules" are valued.

• read aloud as often as possible The more frequently a person reads, whether aloud or silently, the more the person will learn about reading and in particular, about the structures of words and will automatize orthographic knowledge (Stanovich & West, 1989). Readers should be encouraged to read aloud to themselves, in small groups and in choral reading in larger groups.
  
• discuss the purposes and values of reading aloud When readers have clear purposes or reasons for reading, they have targets to aim towards. Discussing purposes gives students directions in which to aim.
  
• model oral reading actions Model oral reading as often as possible and draw attention to the reading actions that need to be learnt. Students become aware of the actions that they can use when they read. When readers discuss with others the actions that they use, others can try out their actions and perhaps take them on for themselves. Use group collaborative learning in which students work together on text, discuss their interpretations and why they made them
  
• encourage experimenting and risk taking Encourage readers to experiment and to take risks when reading aloud. Associated with the ground rules is encouraging them to see reading as a problem-solving activity in which they are trying to guess the writer's intention. Reading aloud permits them to "think aloud" and to learn and practise an increasing range of reading actions or strategies. Help children see the text as a "playing field" or "sandpit" on which they are free to experiment with various actions to achieve a goal. They need to see that they have the freedom to experiment while reading aloud and that this is valued by the teacher.
  
• relax the reader before reading
  It may be necessary to assist the reader to relax prior to reading aloud; this can be achieved through visual imagery techniques, and allowing the reader to review and practise reading the print by her/himself before beginning to read aloud.
  
• helping students get ready' for reading Your teaching may need to consider:
  • recode nonverbal knowledge to verbal form
  • expanding readers' background knowledge and repertoire of reading strategies.
  • drawing attention to the purposes of reading, and discuss the appropriate reading strategies for these purposes.
  
  
• 'feeding back' the knowledge readers gain by reading The teaching can help students add new ideas, vocabulary, new purposes of reading and new reading strategies to what they already know.
  
• having readers write can contribute substantially to reading ability
  
• reading programs are best implemented developmentally Progress through a reading program can be indicated by the reader's ability to read an increasingly broad range of text: read text that
  • increases in grammatical complexity; ideas sequenced in different ways
  • involves words with increasingly more complex and sophisticated meanings.
  • requires a greater level of inference and prediction for its comprehension.